1. Why we can create only up to 4 primary partations?
This is the question which pops in my mind that why not more than that 4 partations
here is the info how many partations we can create
actually in basic hard disk, we can create 4 partition(either primary or extended)
we can create maximum 4 primary
or 3 primary + 1 extended
or 2 primary + 1 extended
or 1 primary + 1 extended
not more then that? why and what is the reason?
The reason is because of a limitation of the MBR(Master Boot Record- the first sector of the harddisk.)
The MBR is only 512bytes of size, it is needed to store the primary boot loader, and the partition table. Typically, the area reserved for partition table is only 64 bytes. And the partition table entry for one partition is 16 bytes. So, 16x4=64. The space is over. so we cant create more than this
2. What is the "sticky bit"? (t and T)
- The sticky bit is primarily used on shared directories. It is useful for shared directories such as /var/tmp and /tmp/ because users CAN CREATE files, READ and EXECUTE files owned by other users, but ARE NOT ALLOWED to REMOVE files owned by other users. Of course, users CAN REMOVE their own files.
- The sticky bit (file mode bit 01000) is used to indicate special treatment of certain files and directories. A directory for which the sticky bit is set restricts deletion of files it contains. A file in a sticky directory may only be removed or renamed by a user who has write permission on the directory, and either owns the file, owns the directory, or is the super-user. This is useful for directories such as /tmp, which must be publicly writable, but should deny users permission to arbitrarily delete or rename the files of others.2. Identifying sticky permissions.
# ls -ld /var/tmp
drwxrwxrwt 2 sys sys 512 Jun 20 11:02 /var/tmp
See the "t"? That tells us that the sticky bit is set.
A "T" refers to when the execute permissions are OFF.
A "t" refers to when the execute permissions are ON.
3. Setting sticky bit permissions.
The leading "1" in the "chmod" command sets the sticky bit.
# chmod 1771 <path_to_directory> (permissions for "other" have execute bit ON)
drwxrwx--t
# chmod 1770 <path_to_directory> (permissions for "other" have execute bit OFF)
drwxrwx--T
What file defines the levels of messages written to system log files?
kernel.h
To determine the various levels of messages that are defined on your system, examine the kernel.h file.
What command is used to remove the password assigned to a group?
gpasswd -r
The gpasswd command is used to change the password assigned to a group. Use the -r option to remove the password from the group.
What command would you type to use the cpio to create a backup called backup.cpio of all the users’ home directories?
find /home | cpio -o > backup.cpio
The find command is used to create a list of the files and directories contained in home. This list is then piped to the cpio utility as a list of files to include and the output is saved to a file called backup.cpio.
What can you type at a command line to determine which shell you are using?
echo $SHELL
The name and path to the shell you are using is saved to the SHELL environment variable. You can then use the echo command to print out the value of any variable by preceding the variable’s name with $. Therefore, typing echo $SHELL will display the name of your shell.
What type of local file server can you use to provide the distribution installation materials to the new machine during a network installation?
A) Inetd
B) FSSTND
C) DNS
D) NNTP
E) NFS
E – You can use an NFS server to provide the distribution installation materials to the machine on which you are performing the installation. Answers a, b, c, and d are all valid items but none of them are file servers. Inetd is the superdaemon which controls all intermittently used network services. The FSSTND is the Linux File System Standard. DNS provides domain name resolution, and NNTP is the transfer protocol for usenet news.
If you type the command cat dog & > cat what would you see on your display? Choose one:
a. Any error messages only.
b. The contents of the file dog.
c. The contents of the file dog and any error messages.
d. Nothing as all output is saved to the file cat.
d
When you use & > for redirection, it redirects both the standard output and standard error. The output would be saved to the file cat.
You are covering for another system administrator and one of the users asks you to restore a file for him. You locate the correct tarfile by checking the backup log but do not know how the directory structure was stored. What command can you use to determine this?
Choose one:
a. tar fx tarfile dirname
b. tar tvf tarfile filename
c. tar ctf tarfile
d. tar tvf tarfile
d
The t switch will list the files contained in the tarfile. Using the v modifier will display the stored directory structure.
You have the /var directory on its own partition. You have run out of space. What should you do? Choose one:
a. Reconfigure your system to not write to the log files.
b. Use fips to enlarge the partition.
c. Delete all the log files.
d. Delete the partition and recreate it with a larger size.
d
The only way to enlarge a partition is to delete it and recreate it. You will then have to restore the necessary files from backup.
You have a new application on a CD-ROM that you wish to install. What should your first step be?
Choose one:
a. Read the installation instructions on the CD-ROM.
b. Use the mount command to mount your CD-ROM as read-write.
c. Use the umount command to access your CD-ROM.
d. Use the mount command to mount your CD-ROM as read-only.
d
Before you can read any of the files contained on the CD-ROM, you must first mount the CD-ROM.
When you create a new partition, you need to designate its size by defining the starting and ending _____________.
cylinders
When creating a new partition you must first specify its starting cylinder. You can then either specify its size or the ending cylinder.
What is the default Window system / Windows manager used in Linux?
X.org
What command is used to list the contents of directory?
ls
ls -l
What command is used to list the top 10 files / directories size wise?
for X in $(du -s * | sort -nr | cut -f 2); do du -hs $X ; done
What command is used to display a list of currently running processes?
ps
top
pstree
pgrep
/proc file system
What is a login shell?
A program get executed when a user logs into UNIX box. E.g. bash, sh, ksh, csh
What is UID?
User identification number which is assigned to each UNIX / Linux user; it may or may not be unique (unique number is recommended to avoid security related issues). UID and user relationship defined in /etc/passswd file.
man id
man users
man groups
What GID? What is EUID? What SUID? What is RUID?
Linux > More on USER ID, Password, and Group management
Understanding /etc/passwd file format
Understanding /etc/ shadow file
Explain Unix User security concept
Permissions – chmod and chown
User groups – group management – user management
Read su, sudo man page
What PID?
Process identification number; use ps command to see PID. It is a number used by Unix kernels and Windows operating systems to identify a process.
Explain process ID zero and process ID 1?
All the idle task has process ID zero, and never exits.
The init process, with process ID 1, which does nothing but wait around for its child processes to die. Usually started for /etc/inittab
Explain wheel group usage along with an example?
man su
What command is used to check a file system for errors?
fsck
fsck.ext3
fsck.nfs
fsck.ext2
fsck.vfat
fsck.reiserfs
fsck.msdos
Is Linux / UNIX file system case sensitive? Give one example
Yes, test.txt and TEST.txt are two different files
What file contains the list of drives that are mounted at boot?
/etc/fstab – Linux / Other UNIX version
/etc/vfstab – Solaris UNIX
Explain the usage of the fourth field in /etc/fstab?
It is formatted as a comma separated list of options. Read mount command man page for all the option.
What is /etc/inittab file? In what file is the default run level defined?
System V init examines the ‘/etc/inittab’ file for an ‘initdefault’ entry, which tells init whether there is a default runlevel. init is the program on Unix that spawns all other processes. It runs as a daemon and typically has PID 1.
man init
cat /etc/inittab
Common runlevle values on RHEL
0. Halt
1. Single user mode
6. Reboot
3. Default text
5. Default GUI
To check the current runlevel:
who -r
runlevel
What command is used to get help about command? What command is used to read manual page for a given command?
info command-name
man command-name
command-name -h
command-name –help
What command form or symbol used to redirect output to a file?
Use the > symbol
command-name > output.txt
Use the < symbol to read input from a file
What is POSIX? Name 2 POSIX-oriented operating systems?
Portable Operating System Interface is the collective name of a family of related standards specified by the IEEE to define the application programming interface (API). HP-UX, Solaris, AIX etc
Linux and BSD not certified as POSIX but conform to standard.
Explain Raw device and command s to configure Raw device
Block device file that allows accessing a storage device such as a hard drive directly. For example /dev/hda. Use commands
mknod
fdisk
mkfs
mkfs.ext3
Explain Unix domain socket
Unix Sockets
MySQL and many programs uses domain socket to make client / server communication. Usually fast as compare to TCP/IP
Secify seciaal usage for each one of the following file
/dev/null – Send unwanted output
/dev/random – Random number generation
/dev/zero – Cache or Destroy data on a partition – dd if=/dev/zero of=/dev/sda98
What is ‘inode’?
ANS: When a file system is created, data structures that contain information about files are created. Each file has an inode and is identified by an inode number (often “i-number” or even shorter, “ino”) in the file system where it resides.
Inodes store information on files such as user and group ownership, access mode (read, write, execute permissions)
and type of file. There is a fixed number of inodes, which indicates the maximum number of files each filesystem can hold.
A file’s inode number can be found using the ls -i command, while the ls -l command will retrieve inode information.
This is description of inode information which it contain:
* The length of the file in bytes.
* Device ID (this identifies the device containing the
file).
* The User ID of the file’s owner.
* The Group ID of the file.
* The file mode, which determines what users can read,
write, and execute the file.
* Timestamps telling when the inode itself was last
modified (ctime, change time), the file content last
modified (mtime, modification time), and last accessed
(atime, access time).
* A reference count telling how many hard links point to
the inode.
* Pointers to the disk blocks that store the file’s content
***why do you need to have a swap file system?
Linux systems run better with a swap file, even when you have plenty of RAM. The technical reason is that it’s
sometimes easier to swap out “dirty” data than it is to write it to peoperly to the disk.
In general, Linux will fill up as much of your memory as it can, in the hope that those little bits might be needed. You
might as well use it (RAM). If it’s all filled up, then at some point, you’re going to have to free
some of it up.
Data may be sitting around in RAM waiting to be written to disk in an efficient and orderly process.
This is called “dirty” data. Sometimes, just because of the way it works,
it’s faster and easier to leave the “dirty data” in memory, but transfer it to swap, thereby freeing physical RAM.
Ideally, it would be best to just free it from RAM entirely, but this gives the kernel another option.
***What is the difference between Hard Link and Soft Link in Linux?
Hard Link is a mirror copy of the original file. Hard links share the same inode. Any changes made to the original or Hard linked file will reflect the other. Even if you delete any one of the files, nothing will happen to the other.
Hard links can’t cross file systems.
Soft Link is a symbolic link to the original file. Soft Links will have a different Inode value.
A soft link points to the original file. If you delete the original file, the soft link fails. If you delete the soft link, nothing will happen.
Soft links can cross file systems.
**How to put a job in background & bring it to foreground?
Answer: we can put a job in background by putin & symbol at the end
of the line on the command promt.
Example: #cp -r /var/* /tmp &
We can pull the background job in the foreground by fg command and pid, before that we have to get the process ID
how to get the process ID see below example.
Example: #jobs
1+ cp -r /var/* /tmp &
now u can get the job ID then u can bring the job in foreground see below example
Example: #fg 1
cp -r /var/* /tmp —-now its show like this
***how do I find out zombie process?
# ps aux | awk ‘{ print $8 ” ” $2 }’ | grep -w Z
Tell me command which is use for create quota database in Linux. -
-quotacheck -cug /home
-1- quotacheck -vu
what is the command for finding the higest memory occupied file in linux?
#du -sh * | sort -nr
Without using w command how can Iknow that who are users logged in and what they are doing and whether they are idle or running mode?
who
Without Using $date -dyesterday. How I get the yesterday’s date ?
$date –date=’1 day ago’
Difference between nfs soft and hard mouniting points?
hard mount option:- If the client fails to access theserver,then connection hang it, after the system up then it access the server.
Soft:- If the client failed to connect the server it
immediately gives the error report, and close the connection.
why LINUX is fast processing software and why it does not get viruses.
All are consider as file.here ,Files are not executing automatically. & All the files systems are set on different different folders so….so its really difficult to interlink all the folders …to operate…for the hackers….
how to find the 51th record of a file containing 100 records in unix.
-head -n 51 filename |tail -1
What Is the command to change a file’s creation time. means one file is created at the time 15:19 then time should br changed to 14:14
-$ touch -m 02281414 emp.lst ; ls -l emp.lst (The -m & -a options chng the modifications & access times)
-rw-r–r– 1 kumar metal 870 Feb 28 14:14 emp.lst
What command can you use to review boot messages?
Answer: dmesg
When do you need a virtual hosting ?
The term Virtual Host refers to the practice of maintaining more than one server on one machine, as differentiated by their apparent hostname. For example, it is often desirable for companies sharing a web server to have their own domains, with web servers accessible as http://www.company1.com and http://www.company2.com, without requiring the user to know any extra path information.
In which port telnet is listening?
23
How to block and openrelay ?
Open relays are e-mail servers that are configured to accept and transfer e-mail on behalf of any user anywhere, including unrelated third parties.
The qmail-smtpd daemon will consult the rcpthosts control file to determine valid destination addresses, and reject anything else.
What is sandwitch configuration in qmail ?
Qmail + Clam + Spamassassin- This is normally called Sandwitch configuration in qmail.
Advantages of Qmail ?
More secure, better designed, modular, faster, more reliable, easier to configure, don’t have to upgrade it every few months or worry about being vulnerable to something due to some obscure feature being enabled
qmail supports host and user masquerading, full host hiding, virtual domains, null clients, list-owner rewriting, relay control, double-bounce recording, arbitrary RFC 822 address lists, cross-host mailing list loop detection, per-recipient checkpointing, downed host backoffs, independent message retry schedules, etc. qmail also includes a drop-in “sendmail” wrapper so that it will be used transparently by your current UAs.
What is the difference between POP3 and IMAP ?
The Difference
POP3 works by reviewing the inbox on the mail server, and downloading the new messages to your computer. IMAP downloads the headers of the new messages on the server, then retrieves the message you want to read when you click on it.
When using POP3, your mail is stored on your PC. When using IMAP, the mail is stored on the mail server. Unless you copy a message to a “Local Folder” the messages are never copied to your PC.
Scenarios of Use
POP3
· You only check e-mail from one computer.
· You want to remove your e-mail from the mail server.
IMAP
· You check e-mail from multiple locations.
· You use Webmail.
How to drop packets using iptables ?
Iptables -A INPUT -s xx.xx.xx.xx -d xx.xx.xx.xx -j DROP
Daily routines of Linux Administrators ?
*.Check the health of servers
*.Check for updates
*.Check the Backup
*.Check with the trouble ticketing system for any unread ticket.
*.Troubleshoot if there any problem
*.Installation of new servers, if needed.
*.Report to the Boss
How to take the Dump of a MySQL Database ?
Mysqldump databasename > dumpname
How to know the CPU usage of each process ?
Top, uptime
How to bind another IP in a NIC ?
Copy the contents eth0 to eth1, and change the ipaddress. Restart the network. .
Transparently proxy all web-surfing through Squid box
iptables -t nat -A PREROUTING -i eth1 -tcp –dport 80 -j DNAT –to
iptables -t nat -A PREROUTING -i eth1 -tcp –dport 80 -j DNAT –to
Transparently redirect web connections from outside to the DMZ web server.
iptables -t nat -A PREROUTING -i eth0 -d 192.168.1.1 -dport 80 -j DNAT –to
Howto Activate the forwarding
echo 1 >/proc/sys/net/ipv4/ip_forward
Kill spoofed packets
for f in /proc/sys/net/ipv4/conf/*/rp_filter; do
echo 1 > $f
done.
$iptables -A LDROP –proto tcp -j LOG –log-level info \ –log-prefix “TCP Drop”
What is LILO?
LILO stands for Linux boot loader. It will load the MBR, master boot record, into the memory, and tell the system which partition and hard drive to boot from.
What is the main advantage of creating links to a file instead of copies of the file?
A: The main advantage is not really that it saves disk space (though it does that too) but, rather, that a change of permissions on the file is applied to all the link access points. The link will show permissions of lrwxrwxrwx but that is for the link itself and not the access to the file to which the link points. Thus if you want to change the permissions for a command, such as su, you only have to do it on the original. With copies you have to find all of the copies and change permission on each of the copies.
Write a command to find all of the files which have been accessed within the last 30 days.
find / -type f -atime -30 > December.files
This command will find all the files under root, which is ‘/’, with file type is file. ‘-atime -30′ will give all the files accessed less than 30 days ago. And the output will put into a file call December.files.
What is the most graceful way to get to run level single user mode?
A: The most graceful way is to use the command init s.
If you want to shut everything down before going to single user mode then do init 0 first and from the ok prompt do a boot -s.
What does the following command line produce? Explain each aspect of this line.
$ (date ; ps -ef | awk ‘{print $1}’ | sort | uniq | wc -l ) >> Activity.log
A: First let’s dissect the line: The date gives the date and time as the first command of the line, this is followed by the a list of all running processes in long form with UIDs listed first, this is the ps -ef. These are fed into the awk which filters out all but the UIDs; these UIDs are piped into sort for no discernible reason and then onto uniq (now we see the reason for the sort – uniq only works on sorted data – if the list is A, B, A, then A, B, A will be the output of uniq, but if it’s A, A, B then A, B is the output) which produces only one copy of each UID.
These UIDs are fed into wc -l which counts the lines – in this case the number of distinct UIDs running processes on the system. Finally the results of these two commands, the date and the wc -l, are appended to the file “Activity.log”. Now to answer the question as to what this command line produces. This writes the date and time into the file Activity.log together with the number of distinct users who have processes running on the system at that time. If the file already exists, then these items are appended to the file, otherwise the file is created.
You
want to print out a text file called vacations however the lines are of varying length. What text filter could you use to even out the length of the lines?
fmt
The fmt text utility attempts to make all the lines the same lenght by joining or splitting lines.
You need to locate a file called salesdata that one of your user’s created in his home directory but you do not know which one. How could you use the find command to locate this file?
Answer: find /home -name salesdata
When using the find command to locate a file by name you must specify the starting place in the directory heirarchy and the -name option to specify the file to search for.
What command would you type to use the cpio to create a backup called backup.cpio of all the users’ home directories?
Answer: find /home | cpio -o > backup.cpio
The find command is used to create a list of the files and directories contained in home. This list is then piped to the cpio utility as a list of files to include and the output is saved to a file called backup.cpio.
You want to create a compressed backup of the users’ home directories so you issue the command gzip /home/* backup.gz but it fails. The reason that it failed is that gzip will only compress one _______ at a time.
Answer: file
The gzip utility cannot compress multiple files in a single operation.
You have three files in the /home/ben/memos directory called letters, tom, betty. How could you determine each file’s type by issuing only one command?
Answer: file letters tom betty
The file utility will display the file’s type for each filename that is passed as an argument.
In order to display the last five commands you have entered using the fc command, you would type ___________.
Answer: fc -5
The fc command can be used to edit or rerun commands you have previously entered. To specify the number of commands to list, use -n.
Each command has two types of output. There are standard output and standard __________.
Answer: error
By default, each command sends its result as standard output and any error messages as standard error.
What can you type at a command line to determine which shell you are using?
Answer: echo $SHELL
The name and path to the shell you are using is saved to the SHELL environment variable. You can then use the echo command to print out the value of any variable by preceding the variable’s name with $. Therefore,
typing echo $SHELL will display the name of your shell.
What type of local file server can you use to provide the distribution installation materials to the new machine during a network installation?
A) Inetd
B) FSSTND
C) DNS
D) NNTP
E) NFS
Answer: E – You can use an NFS server to provide the distribution installation materials to the machine on which you are performing the installation. Answers a, b, c, and d are all valid items but none of them are file servers. Inetd is the superdaemon which controls all intermittently used network services. The FSSTND is the Linux File System Standard. DNS provides domain name resolution, and NNTP is the transfer protocol for usenet news.
What would you type to send the last 20 lines of a text file to STDIN?
A) end -n 20 filename
B) last -n 20 filename
C) head -20 filename
D) end -20 filename
E) tail -20 filename
Answer: E – Use the command tail -20 filename to see the last 20 lines of a file. The answers for a and d both point to an invalid command. The answer for b points to a valid command. Typing this answer in with a valid file name will even give you some output. However, the last command tells you who is logged in, it does not actually list the contents of any file named in the command. The answer for c, the head command, is used to look at the beginning of a file, not the end.
Which command works in almost all distributions to create a boot disk?
A) mkboot
B) make bootdsk
C) make boot
D) mkbootdsk
E) mkbootdisk
Answer: E – The mkbootdisk command creates a boot disk. Answers b and c are incorrect. The make package is used to compile software, not create boot disks. Answers a and d point to invalid commands.
Which command do you use to change runlevels?
A) initlevel
B) runlevel
C) level
D) run
E) init
Answer: E – The command used to change runlevels is init. Answers a, c, and d point to invalid commands. Answer b is a valid command, but does not set the current runlevel. The runlevel command displays the current runlevel, and the one that was used directly before entering this one.
You have a new, empty hard drive that you will use for Linux. What is the first step you use.
Choose one:
a. Create an extended partition to be used for data.
b. Format the hard drive to use the ext2 filesystem.
c. Create a swap partition of type 82.
d. Create a primary partition using fdisk.
Answer: d
You must always first create a primary partition. Operating systems, including Linux, can only be booted from a primary partition.
You have configured logrotate to rotate your logs weekly and keep them for eight weeks. You are running our of disk space. What should you do?
Choose one:
a. Quit using logrotate and manually save old logs to another location.
b. Reconfigure logrotate to only save logs for four weeks.
c. Configure logrotate to save old files to another location.
d. Use the prerotate command to run a script to move the older logs to another location.
Answer: d
You can use the prerotate command to run a script before logs are rotated. You could have this script move the older logs to another location before rotation occurs.
If you type the command cat dog &> cat what would you see on your display?
Choose one:
a. Any error messages only.
b. The contents of the file dog.
c. The contents of the file dog and any error messages.
d. Nothing as all output is saved to the file cat.
Answer: d
When you use &> for redirection, it redirects both the standard output and standard error. The output would be saved to the file cat.
You have a directory with the following permissions
drw-rw–w- 1 root admin 7202 Sep 17 9:10 administration and need to give everyone except root read only access to it. Which of the following commands will accomplish this?
Choose one:
a. chmod uo=r administration
b. chmod ug+r administration
c. chmod uo+r administration
d. chmod ug=r administration
Answer: d
When using symbols, the equal sign explicitly sets permissions and revokes any pre-existing permissions.
You want to know how much space is being occupied by your user’s home directories. Which of the following will provide you with this information?
Choose one:
a. du -l /home
b. du -b /home
c. du -m /home
d. du -c /home
Answer: d
Using the -c option with the du command will show the grand total of used space for the designated directory.
You have entered the following cronjob. When will it run? 15 * * * 1,3,5 myscript
Choose one:
a. at 15 minutes after every hour on the 1st, 3rd and 5th of each month.
b. at 1:15 am, 3:15 am, and 5:15 am every day
c. at 3:00 pm on the 1st, 3rd, and 5th of each month
d. at 15 minutes after every hour every Monday, Wednesday, and Friday
Answer: d
This would run at 15 minutes after the hour on every Monday, Wednesday, and Friday of every month no matter what the date.
You need to see the last fifteen lines of the files dog, cat and horse. What command should you use?
Answer: tail -15 dog cat horse
The tail utility displays the end of a file. The -15 tells tail to display the last fifteen lines of each specified file.
Who owns the data dictionary?
Answer: The SYS user owns the data dictionary. The SYS and SYSTEM
users are created when the database is created.
You routinely compress old log files. You now need to examine a log from two months ago. In order to view its contents without first having to decompress it, use the _________ utility.
Answer: zcat
The zcat utility allows you to examine the contents of a compressed
file much the same way that cat displays a file.
You suspect that you have two commands with the same name as the command is not producing the expected results. What command can you use to determine the location of the command being run?
Answer: which
The which command searches your path until it finds a command that matches the command you are looking for and displays its full path.
You locate a command in the /bin directory but do not know what it does. What command can you use to determine its purpose.
Answer: whatis
The whatis command displays a summary line from the man page for the
specified command.
You wish to create a link to the /data directory in bob’s home directory so you issue the command ln /data /home/bob/datalink but the command fails. What option should you use in this command line to be successful.
Answer: Use the -F option
In order to create a link to a directory you must use the -F option.
When you issue the command ls -l, the first character of the resulting display represents the file’s ___________.
Answer: type
The first character of the permission block designates the type of file that is being displayed.
What utility can you use to show a dynamic listing of running processes?
Answer: top
The top utility shows a listing of all running processes that is dynamically updated.
Where is standard output usually directed?
Answer: to the screen or display
By default, your shell directs standard output to your screen or display.
You want to create a compressed backup of the users’ home directories. What utility should you use?
Answer: tar
You can use the z modifier with tar to compress your archive at the same time as creating it.
You wish to restore the file memo.ben which was backed up in the tarfile MyBackup.tar. What command should you type?
Answer: tar xf MyBackup.tar memo.ben
This command uses the x switch to extract a file. Here the file memo.ben will be restored from the tarfile MyBackup.tar.
You need to view the contents of the tarfile called MyBackup.tar. What command would you use?
Answer: tar tf MyBackup.tar
The t switch tells tar to display the contents and the f modifier specifies which file to examine.
What daemon is responsible for tracking events on your system?
Answer: syslogd
The syslogd daemon is responsible for tracking system information and saving it to specified log files.
You have a file called phonenos that is almost 4,000 lines long. What text filter can you use to split it into four pieces each 1,000 lines long?
Answer: split
The split text filter will divide files into equally sized pieces. The default length of each piece is 1,000 lines.
You would like to temporarily change your command line editor to be vi. What command should you type to change it?
Answer: set -o vi
The set command is used to assign environment variables. In this case, you are instructing your shell to assign vi as your command line editor. However, once you log off and log back in you will return to the previously defined command line editor.
What account is created when you install Linux?
Answer: root
Whenever you install Linux, only one user account is created. This is the superuser account also known as root.
What command should you use to check the number of files and disk space used and each user’sdefined quotas?
Answer: repquota
The repquota command is used to get a report on the status of the quotas you have set including the amount of allocated space and amount of used space.
In order to run fsck on the root partition, the root partition must be mounted as ___________.
Answer: readonly
You cannot run fsck on a partition that is mounted as read-write.
In order to improve your system’s security you decide to implement shadow passwords. What command should you use?
Answer: pwconv
The pwconv command creates the file /etc/shadow and changes all passwords to ‘x’ in the /etc/passwd file.
Bob Armstrong, who has a username of boba, calls to tell you he forgot his password. What command should you use to reset his command?
Answer: passwd boba
The passwd command is used to change your password. If you do not specify a username, your password will be changed.
When you look at the /etc/group file you see the group kmem listed. Since it does not own any files and no one is using it as a default group, can you delete this group?
Answer: no
The kmem group manages direct access to kernel memory and is necessary
for your system’s health.
What text filter can you use to display a multi-page file and place numbers at the beginning of each line.
DirContents
Using the > will redirect the output of the ls /etc command to the
file DirContents.
You have two files each ten lines long. What text filter could you use to combine the two files so that each line of the output contains the corresponding line from each file?
Answer: join
The join text filter will display one line for each pair of input lines from two files.
You have two files in two different directories with the same inode. What type of link is involved?
“,1] ); //–>
Answer: nl
The nl text filter will divide a file into logical pages and number each line.
Question The top utility can be used to change the priority of a running process? Another utility that can also be used to change priority is ___________?
Answer: nice
Both the top and nice utilities provide the capability to change the priority of a running process.
In order to apply a filesystem to your new partitions you must format them. What command would you use to create the ext2 filesystem?
Answer: mke2fs
The mke2fs command creates the new filesystem on your partition.
What command should you type to see all the files with an extension of ‘mem’ listed in reverse alphabetical order in the /home/ben/memos directory.
Answer: ls -r /home/ben/memos/*.mem
The -c option used with ls results in the files being listed in chronological order. You can use wildcards with the ls command to specify a pattern of filenames.
In order to create a file called DirContents containing the contents of the /etc directory you would type ____________.
Answer: ls /etc > DirContents
Using the > will redirect the output of the ls /etc command to the
file DirContents.
What are different categories of operating system?
Answer:
OS Categories
Within the broad family of operating systems, there are generally four types, categorized based on the types of computers they control and the sort of applications they support. The broad categories are:
• Real-time operating system (RTOS) - Real-time operating systems are used to control machinery, scientific instruments and industrial systems. An RTOS typically has very little user-interface capability, and no end-user utilities, since the system will be a "sealed box" when delivered for use. A very important part of an RTOS is managing the resources of the computer so that a particular operation executes in precisely the same amount of time every time it occurs. In a complex machine, having a part move more quickly just because system resources are available may be just as catastrophic as having it not move at all because the system is busy.
• Single-user, single task - As the name implies, this operating system is designed to manage the computer so that one user can effectively do one thing at a time. The Palm OS for Palm handheld computers is a good example of a modern single-user, single-task operating system.
• Single-user, multi-tasking - This is the type of operating system most people use on their desktop and laptop computers today. Microsoft's Windows and Apple's MacOS platforms are both examples of operating systems that will let a single user have several programs in operation at the same time. For example, it's entirely possible for a Windows user to be writing a note in a word processor while downloading a file from the Internet while printing the text of an e-mail message.
• Multi-user - A multi-user operating system allows many different users to take advantage of the computer's resources simultaneously. The operating system must make sure that the requirements of the various users are balanced, and that each of the programs they are using has sufficient and separate resources so that a problem with one user doesn't affect the entire community of users. Unix/LINUX , VMS and mainframe operating systems, such as MVS, are examples of multi-user operating systems.
Describe the golden history of LINUX OS.
Answer:
The roots of Linux can be traced back to the origins of Unix . In 1969, Ken Thompson of the Research Group at Bell Laboratories began experimenting on a multi-user, multi-tasking operating system using an otherwise idle PDP-7. He was soon joined by Dennis Richie and the two of them, along with other members of the Research Group produced the early versions of Unix. Richie was strongly influenced by an earlier project, MULTICS and the name Unix is itself a pun on the name MULTICS. Early versions were written in assembly code, but the third version was rewritten in a new programming language, C. C was designed and written by Richie expressly as a programming language for writing operating systems. This rewrite allowed Unix to move onto the more powerful PDP-11/45 and 11/70 computers then being produced by DIGITAL. The rest, as they say, is history. Unix moved out of the laboratory and into mainstream computing and soon most major computer manufacturers were producing their own versions.
Linux was the solution to a simple need. The only software that Linus Torvalds, Linux's author and principle maintainer was able to afford was Minix. Minix is a simple, Unix like, operating system widely used as a teaching aid. Linus was less than impressed with its features, his solution was to write his own software. He took Unix as his model as that was an operating system that he was familiar with in his day to day student life. He started with an Intel 386 based PC and started to write. Progress was rapid and, excited by this, Linus offered his efforts to other students via the emerging world wide computer networks, then mainly used by the academic community. Others saw the software and started contributing. Much of this new software was itself the solution to a problem that one of the contributors had. Before long, Linux had become an operating system. It is important to note that Linux contains no Unix code, it is a rewrite based on published POSIX standards. Linux is built with and uses a lot of the GNU (GNU's Not Unix ) software produced by the Free Software Foundation in Cambridge, Massachusetts.
What are different properties of Linux behind its popularity?
Answer:
Properties of Linux
A lot of the advantages of Linux are a consequence of Linux' origins, deeply rooted in UNIX, except for the first advantage, of course:
§ Linux is free:
If you want to spend absolutely nothing, you don't even have to pay the price of a CD. Linux can be downloaded in its entirety from the Internet completely for free. No registration fees, no costs per user, free updates, and freely available source code in case you want to change the behavior of your system. The license commonly used is the GNU Public License (GPL). The license says that anybody who may want to do so, has the right to change Linux and eventually to redistribute a changed version, on the one condition that the code is still available after redistribution. In practice, you are free to grab a kernel image, for instance to add support for teletransportation machines or time travel and sell your new code, as long as your customers can still have a copy of that code.
• Linux is portable to any hardware platform:
A vendor who wants to sell a new type of computer and who doesn't know what kind of OS his new machine will run (say the CPU in your car or washing machine), can take a Linux kernel and make it work on his hardware, because documentation related to this activity is freely available.
• Linux was made to keep on running:
As with UNIX, a Linux system expects to run without rebooting all the time. That is why a lot of tasks are being executed at night or scheduled automatically for other calm moments, resulting in higher availability during busier periods and a more balanced use of the hardware. This property allows for Linux to be applicable also in environments where people don't have the time or the possibility to control their systems night and day.
• Linux is secure and versatile:
The security model used in Linux is based on the UNIX idea of security, which is known to be robust and of proven quality. But Linux is not only fit for use as a fort against enemy attacks from the Internet: it will adapt equally to other situations, utilizing the same high standards for security. Your development machine or control station will be as secure as your firewall.
• Linux is scalable:
From a Palmtop with 2 MB of memory to a petabyte storage cluster with hundreds of nodes: add or remove the appropriate packages and Linux fits all. You don't need a supercomputer anymore, because you can use Linux to do big things using the building blocks provided with the system. If you want to do little things, such as making an operating system for an embedded processor or just recycling your old 486, Linux will do that as well.
• The Linux OS and quite some Linux applications have very short debug-times:
Because Linux has been developed and tested by thousands of people, both errors and people to fix them are usually found rather quickly. It sometimes happens that there are only a couple of hours between discovery and fixing of a bug.
What are different popular Linux distributions?
Answer:
Linux distributions
• RedHat
• Fedora Core
• Debian
• SuSE Linux
• Mandriva (former MandrakeSoft)
• Knoppix: an operating system that runs from your CD-ROM, you don't need to install anything.
How are devices represented in UNIX/Linux?
Answer:
All devices are represented by files called special files that are located in/dev directory. Thus, device files and other files are named and accessed in the same way. A 'regular file' is just an ordinary data file in the disk. A 'block special file' represents a device with characteristics similar to a disk (data transfer in terms of blocks). A 'character special file' represents a device with characteristics similar to a keyboard (data transfer is by stream of bits in sequential order).
What is 'inode'?
Answer:
All UNIX files have its description stored in a structure called 'inode'. The inode contains info about the file-size, its location, time of last access, time of last modification, permission and so on. Directories are also represented as files and have an associated inode. In addition to descriptions about the file, the inode contains pointers to the data blocks of the file. If the file is large, inode has indirect pointer to a block of pointers to additional data blocks (this further aggregates for larger files). A block is typically 8k.
Inode consists of the following fields:
* File owner identifier
* File type
* File access permissions
* File access times
* Number of links
* File size
* Location of the file data
Brief about the directory representation in UNIX
Answer:
A Unix directory is a file containing a correspondence between filenames and inodes. A directory is a special file that the kernel maintains. Only kernel modifies directories, but processes can read directories. The contents of a directory are a list of filename and inode number pairs. When new directories are created, kernel makes two entries named '.' (refers to the directory itself) and '..' (refers to parent directory).
System call for creating directory is mkdir (pathname, mode).
What are the Unix system calls for I/O?
Answer:
open(pathname,flag,mode) - open file
creat(pathname,mode) - create file
close(filedes) - close an open file
read(filedes,buffer,bytes) - read data from an open file
write(filedes,buffer,bytes) - write data to an open file
lseek(filedes,offset,from) - position an open file
dup(filedes) - duplicate an existing file descriptor
dup2(oldfd,newfd) - duplicate to a desired file descriptor
fcntl(filedes,cmd,arg) - change properties of an open file
ioctl(filedes,request,arg) - change the behaviour of an open file
The difference between fcntl anf ioctl is that the former is intended for any open file, while the latter is for device-specific operations.
How do you change File Access Permissions?
Answer:
Every file has following attributes:
owner's user ID ( 16 bit integer )
owner's group ID ( 16 bit integer )
File access mode word
'r w x -r w x- r w x'
(user permission-group permission-others permission)
r-read, w-write, x-execute
To change the access mode, we use chmod(filename,mode).
Example 1:
To change mode of skpfile to 'rw-rw-r--' (ie. read, write permission for user - read,write permission for group - only read permission for others) we give the args as:
chmod(skpfile,0664) .
Each operation is represented by discrete values
'r' is 4
'w' is 2
'x' is 1
Therefore, for 'rw' the value is 6(4+2).
Example 2:
To change mode of skpfile to 'rwxr--r--' we give the args as:
chmod(skpfile,0744).
What are links and symbolic links in UNIX file system?
Answer:
A link is a second name (not a file) for a file. Links can be used to assign more than one name to a file, but cannot be used to assign a directory more than one name or link filenames on different computers.
Symbolic link 'is' a file that only contains the name of another file.Operation on the symbolic link is directed to the file pointed by the it.Both the limitations of links are eliminated in symbolic links.
Commands for linking files are:
Link: ln filename1 filename2
Symbolic link: ln -s filename1 filename2
What is a FIFO?
Answer:
FIFO are otherwise called as 'named pipes'. FIFO (first-in-first-out) is a special file which is said to be data transient. Once data is read from named pipe, it cannot be read again. Also, data can be read only in the order written. It is used in interprocess communication where a process writes to one end of the pipe (producer) and the other reads from the other end (consumer).
How do you create special files like named pipes and device files?
Answer:
The system call mknod creates special files in the following sequence.
1. kernel assigns new inode,
2. sets the file type to indicate that the file is a pipe, directory or special file,
3. If it is a device file, it makes the other entries like major, minor device numbers.
For example:
If the device is a disk, major device number refers to the disk controller and minor device number is the disk.
Discuss the mount and unmount system calls
Answer:
The privileged mount system call is used to attach a file system to a directory of another file system; the unmount system call detaches a file system. When you mount another file system on to your directory, you are essentially splicing one directory tree onto a branch in another directory tree. The first argument to mount call is the mount point, that is , a directory in the current file naming system. The second argument is the file system to mount to that point. When you insert a cdrom to your unix system's drive, the file system in the cdrom automatically mounts to /dev/cdrom in your system.
How does the inode map to data block of a file?
Answer:
Inode has 13 block addresses. The first 10 are direct block addresses of the first 10 data blocks in the file. The 11th address points to a one-level index block. The 12th address points to a two-level (double in-direction) index block. The 13th address points to a three-level(triple in-direction)index block. This provides a very large maximum file size with efficient access to large files, but also small files are accessed directly in one disk read.
What is a shell?
Answer:
A shell is an interactive user interface to an operating system services that allows an user to enter commands as character strings or through a graphical user interface. The shell converts them to system calls to the OS or forks off a process to execute the command. System call results and other information from the OS are presented to the user through an interactive interface. Commonly used shells are sh,csh,ksh etc.
Brief about the initial process sequence while the system boots up.
Answer:
While booting, special process called the 'swapper' or 'scheduler' is created with Process-ID 0. The swapper manages memory allocation for processes and influences CPU allocation. The swapper inturn creates 3 children:
the process dispatcher,
vhand and
dbflush
with IDs 1,2 and 3 respectively.
This is done by executing the file /etc/init. Process dispatcher gives birth to the shell. Unix keeps track of all the processes in an internal data structure called the Process Table (listing command is ps -el).
What are various IDs associated with a process?
Answer:
Unix identifies each process with a unique integer called ProcessID. The process that executes the request for creation of a process is called the 'parent process' whose PID is 'Parent Process ID'. Every process is associated with a particular user called the 'owner' who has privileges over the process. The identification for the user is 'UserID'. Owner is the user who executes the process. Process also has 'Effective User ID' which determines the access privileges for accessing resources like files.
getpid() -process id
getppid() -parent process id
getuid() -user id
geteuid() -effective user id
Explain fork() system call.
Answer:
The `fork()' used to create a new process from an existing process. The new process is called the child process, and the existing process is called the parent. We can tell which is which by checking the return value from `fork()'. The parent gets the child's pid returned to him, but the child gets 0 returned to him.
Predict the output of the following program code
main()
{
fork();
printf("Hello World!");
}
Answer:
Hello World!Hello World!
Explanation:
The fork creates a child that is a duplicate of the parent process. The child begins from the fork().All the statements after the call to fork() will be executed twice.(once by the parent process and other by child). The statement before fork() is executed only by the parent process.
Predict the output of the following program code
main()
{
fork(); fork(); fork();
printf("Hello World!");
}
Answer:
"Hello World" will be printed 8 times.
Explanation:
2^n times where n is the number of calls to fork()
List the system calls used for process management:
Answer:
System calls Description
fork() To create a new process
exec() To execute a new program in a process
wait() To wait until a created process completes its execution
exit() To exit from a process execution
getpid() To get a process identifier of the current process
getppid() To get parent process identifier
nice() To bias the existing priority of a process
brk() To increase/decrease the data segment size of a process
How can you get/set an environment variable from a program?:
Answer:
Getting the value of an environment variable is done by using `getenv()'. Setting the value of an environment variable is done by using `putenv()'.
How can a parent and child process communicate?
Answer:
A parent and child can communicate through any of the normal inter-process communication schemes (pipes, sockets, message queues, shared memory), but also have some special ways to communicate that take advantage of their relationship as a parent and child. One of the most obvious is that the parent can get the exit status of the child.
What is a zombie?
Answer:
When a program forks and the child finishes before the parent, the kernel still keeps some of its information about the child in case the parent might need it - for example, the parent may need to check the child's exit status. To be able to get this information, the parent calls `wait()'; In the interval between the child terminating and the parent calling `wait()', the child is said to be a `zombie' (If you do `ps', the child will have a `Z' in its status field to indicate this.)
What are the process states in Unix?
Answer:
As a process executes it changes state according to its circumstances. Unix processes have the following states:
Running : The process is either running or it is ready to run .
Waiting : The process is waiting for an event or for a resource.
Stopped : The process has been stopped, usually by receiving a signal.
Zombie : The process is dead but have not been removed from the process table.
What Happens when you execute a program?
Answer:
When you execute a program on your UNIX system, the system creates a special environment for that program. This environment contains everything needed for the system to run the program as if no other program were running on the system. Each process has process context, which is everything that is unique about the state of the program you are currently running. Every time you execute a program the UNIX system does a fork, which performs a series of operations to create a process context and then execute your program in that context. The steps include the following:
Allocate a slot in the process table, a list of currently running programs kept by UNIX.
Assign a unique process identifier (PID) to the process.
iCopy the context of the parent, the process that requested the spawning of the new process.
Return the new PID to the parent process. This enables the parent process to examine or control the process directly. After the fork is complete, UNIX runs your program.
What Happens when you execute a command?
Answer:
When you enter 'ls' command to look at the contents of your current working directory, UNIX does a series of things to create an environment for ls and the run it: The shell has UNIX perform a fork. This creates a new process that the shell will use to run the ls program. The shell has UNIX perform an exec of the ls program. This replaces the shell program and data with the program and data for ls and then starts running that new program. The ls program is loaded into the new process context, replacing the text and data of the shell. The ls program performs its task, listing the contents of the current directory.
What is a Daemon?
Answer:
A daemon is a process that detaches itself from the terminal and runs, disconnected, in the background, waiting for requests and responding to them. It can also be defined as the background process that does not belong to a terminal session. Many system functions are commonly performed by daemons, including the sendmail daemon, which handles mail, and the NNTP daemon, which handles USENET news. Many other daemons may exist. Some of the most common daemons are:
init: Takes over the basic running of the system when the kernel has finished the boot process.
inetd: Responsible for starting network services that do not have their own stand-alone daemons. For example, inetd usually takes care of incoming rlogin, telnet, and ftp connections.
cron: Responsible for running repetitive tasks on a regular schedule.
What is 'ps' command for?
Answer:
The ps command prints the process status for some or all of the running processes. The information given are the process identification number (PID),the amount of time that the process has taken to execute so far etc.
How would you kill a process?
Answer:
The kill command takes the PID as one argument; this identifies which process to terminate. The PID of a process can be got using 'ps' command.
What is an advantage of executing a process in background?
Answer:
The most common reason to put a process in the background is to allow you to do something else interactively without waiting for the process to complete. At the end of the command you add the special background symbol, &. This symbol tells your shell to execute the given command in the background.
Example: cp *.* ../backup& (cp is for copy)
How do you execute one program from within another?
Answer:
The system calls used for low-level process creation are execlp() and execvp(). The execlp call overlays the existing program with the new one , runs that and exits. The original program gets back control only when an error occurs. execlp(path,file_name,arguments..); //last argument must be NULL A variant of execlp called execvp is used when the number of arguments is not known in advance. execvp(path,argument_array); //argument array should be terminated by NULL
What is IPC? What are the various schemes available?
Answer:
The term IPC (Inter-Process Communication) describes various ways by which different process running on some operating system communicate between each other. Various schemes available are as follows: Pipes:
One-way communication scheme through which different process can communicate. The problem is that the two processes should have a common ancestor (parent-child relationship). However this problem was fixed with the introduction of named-pipes (FIFO).
Message Queues :
Message queues can be used between related and unrelated processes running on a machine.
Shared Memory:
This is the fastest of all IPC schemes. The memory to be shared is mapped into the address space of the processes (that are sharing). The speed achieved is attributed to the fact that there is no kernel involvement. But this scheme needs synchronization.
Various forms of synchronisation are mutexes, condition-variables, read-write locks, record-locks, and semaphores.
What is the difference between Swapping and Paging?
Answer:
Swapping: Whole process is moved from the swap device to the main memory for execution. Process size must be less than or equal to the available main memory. It is easier to implementation and overhead to the system. Swapping systems does not handle the memory more flexibly as compared to the paging systems.
Paging:
Only the required memory pages are moved to main memory from the swap device for execution. Process size does not matter. Gives the concept of the virtual memory.
It provides greater flexibility in mapping the virtual address space into the physical memory of the machine. Allows more number of processes to fit in the main memory simultaneously. Allows the greater process size than the available physical memory. Demand paging systems handle the memory more flexibly.
What is major difference between the Historic Unix and the new BSD release of Unix System V in terms of Memory Management?
Answer:
Historic Unix uses Swapping – entire process is transferred to the main memory from the swap device, whereas the Unix System V uses Demand Paging – only the part of the process is moved to the main memory. Historic Unix uses one Swap Device and Unix System V allow multiple Swap Devices.
What is the main goal of the Memory Management?
Answer:
It decides which process should reside in the main memory, Manages the parts of the virtual address space of a process which is non-core resident, Monitors the available main memory and periodically write the processes into the swap device to provide more processes fit in the main memory simultaneously.
What is a Map?
Answer:
A Map is an Array, which contains the addresses of the free space in the swap device that are allocatable resources, and the number of the resource units available there.
This allows First-Fit allocation of contiguous blocks of a resource. Initially the Map contains one entry – address (block offset from the starting of the swap area) and the total number of resources. Kernel treats each unit of Map as a group of disk blocks. On the allocation and freeing of the resources Kernel updates the Map for accurate information.
What scheme does the Kernel in Unix System V follow while choosing a swap device among the multiple swap devices?
Answer:
Kernel follows Round Robin scheme choosing a swap device among the multiple swap devices in Unix System V.
What is a Region?
Answer:
A Region is a continuous area of a process’s address space (such as text, data and stack). The kernel in a ‘Region Table’ that is local to the process maintains region. Regions are sharable among the process.
What are the events done by the Kernel after a process is being swapped out from the main memory?
Answer:
When Kernel swaps the process out of the primary memory, it performs the following:
Kernel decrements the Reference Count of each region of the process. If the reference count becomes zero, swaps the region out of the main memory,
Kernel allocates the space for the swapping process in the swap device,
Kernel locks the other swapping process while the current swapping operation is going on,
The Kernel saves the swap address of the region in the region table.
Is the Process before and after the swap are the same? Give reason.
Answer:
Process before swapping is residing in the primary memory in its original form. The regions (text, data and stack) may not be occupied fully by the process, there may be few empty slots in any of the regions and while swapping Kernel do not bother about the empty slots while swapping the process out. After swapping the process resides in the swap (secondary memory) device. The regions swapped out will be present but only the occupied region slots but not the empty slots that were present before assigning. While swapping the process once again into the main memory, the Kernel referring to the Process Memory Map, it assigns the main memory accordingly taking care of the empty slots in the regions.
What do you mean by u-area (user area) or u-block?
Answer:
This contains the private data that is manipulated only by the Kernel. This is local to the Process, i.e. each process is allocated a u-area.
What are the entities that are swapped out of the main memory while swapping the process out of the main memory ?
Answer:
All memory space occupied by the process, process’s u-area, and Kernel stack are swapped out, theoretically. Practically, if the process’s u-area contains the Address Translation Tables for the process then Kernel implementations do not swap the u-area.
What is Fork swap?
Answer:
fork() is a system call to create a child process. When the parent process calls fork() system call, the child process is created and if there is short of memory then the child process is sent to the read-to-run state in the swap device, and return to the user state without swapping the parent process. When the memory will be available the child process will be swapped into the main memory.
What is Expansion swap?
Answer:
At the time when any process requires more memory than it is currently allocated, the Kernel performs Expansion swap. To do this Kernel reserves enough space in the swap device. Then the address translation mapping is adjusted for the new virtual address space but the physical memory is not allocated. At last Kernel swaps the process into the assigned space in the swap device. Later when the Kernel swaps the process into the main memory this assigns memory according to the new address translation mapping.
How the Swapper works?
Answer:
The swapper is the only process that swaps the processes. The Swapper operates only in the Kernel mode and it does not uses System calls instead it uses internal Kernel functions for swapping. It is the archetype of all kernel process.
What are the processes that are not bothered by the swapper? Give Reason.
Answer:
Zombie process: They do not take any up physical memory.
Processes locked in memories that are updating the region of the process.
Kernel swaps only the sleeping processes rather than the ‘ready-to-run’ processes, as they have the higher probability of being scheduled than the Sleeping processes.
What are the requirements for a swapper to work?
Answer:
The swapper works on the highest scheduling priority. Firstly it will look for any sleeping process, if not found then it will look for the ready-to-run process for swapping. But the major requirement for the swapper to work the ready-to-run process must be core-resident for at least 2 seconds before swapping out. And for swapping in the process must have been resided in the swap device for at least 2 seconds. If the requirement is not satisfied then the swapper will go into the wait state on that event and it is awaken once in a second by the Kernel.
What are the criteria for choosing a process for swapping into memory from the swap device?
Answer:
The resident time of the processes in the swap device, the priority of the processes and the amount of time the processes had been swapped out.
What are the criteria for choosing a process for swapping out of the memory to the swap device?
Answer:
The process’s memory resident time,
Priority of the process and
The nice value.
What do you mean by nice value?
Answer:
Nice value is the value that controls {increments or decrements} the priority of the process. This value that is returned by the nice () system call. The equation for using nice value is: Priority = (“recent CPU usage”/constant) + (base- priority) + (nice value) Only the administrator can supply the nice value. The nice () system call works for the running process only. Nice value of one process cannot affect the nice value of the other process.
What are conditions on which deadlock can occur while swapping the processes?
Answer:
All processes in the main memory are asleep.
All ‘ready-to-run’ processes are swapped out.
There is no space in the swap device for the new incoming process that are swapped out of the main memory.
There is no space in the main memory for the new incoming process.
What are conditions for a machine to support Demand Paging?
Answer:
Memory architecture must based on Pages,
The machine must support the ‘restartable’ instructions.
What is ‘the principle of locality’?
Answer:
It’s the nature of the processes that they refer only to the small subset of the total data space of the process. i.e. the process frequently calls the same subroutines or executes the loop instructions.
What is the working set of a process?
Answer:
The set of pages that are referred by the process in the last ‘n’, references, where ‘n’ is called the window of the working set of the process.
What is the window of the working set of a process?
Answer:
The window of the working set of a process is the total number in which the process had referred the set of pages in the working set of the process.
What is called a page fault?
Answer:
Page fault is referred to the situation when the process addresses a page in the working set of the process but the process fails to locate the page in the working set. And on a page fault the kernel updates the working set by reading the page from the secondary device.
What are data structures that are used for Demand Paging?
Kernel contains 4 data structures for Demand paging. They are,
Page table entries,
Disk block descriptors,
Page frame data table (pfdata),
Swap-use table.
What are the bits that support the demand paging?
Answer:
Valid, Reference, Modify, Copy on write, Age. These bits are the part of the page table entry, which includes physical address of the page and protection bits.
Page address
Age
Copy on write
Modify
Reference
Valid
Protection
How the Kernel handles the fork() system call in traditional Unix and in the System V Unix, while swapping?
Answer:
Kernel in traditional Unix, makes the duplicate copy of the parent’s address space and attaches it to the child’s process, while swapping. Kernel in System V Unix, manipulates the region tables, page table, and pfdata table entries, by incrementing the reference count of the region table of shared regions.
Difference between the fork() and vfork() system call?
Answer:
During the fork() system call the Kernel makes a copy of the parent process’s address space and attaches it to the child process. But the vfork() system call do not makes any copy of the parent’s address space, so it is faster than the fork() system call. The child process as a result of the vfork() system call executes exec() system call. The child process from vfork() system call executes in the parent’s address space (this can overwrite the parent’s data and stack ) which suspends the parent process until the child process
exits.
What is BSS(Block Started by Symbol)?
Answer:
A data representation at the machine level, that has initial values when a program starts and tells about how much space the kernel allocates for the un-initialized data. Kernel initializes it to zero at run-time.
What is Page-Stealer process?
Answer:
This is the Kernel process that makes rooms for the incoming pages, by swapping the memory pages that are not the part of the working set of a process. Page-Stealer is created by the Kernel at the system initialization and invokes it throughout the lifetime of the system. Kernel locks a region when a process faults on a page in the region, so that page stealer cannot steal the page, which is being faulted in.
Name two paging states for a page in memory?
Answer:
The two paging states are:
The page is aging and is not yet eligible for swapping,
The page is eligible for swapping but not yet eligible for reassignment to other virtual address space.
What are the phases of swapping a page from the memory?
Answer:
Page stealer finds the page eligible for swapping and places the page number in the list of pages to be swapped. Kernel copies the page to a swap device when necessary and clears the valid bit in the page table entry, decrements the pfdata reference count, and places the pfdata table entry at the end of the free list if its reference count is 0.
What is page fault? Its types?
Answer:
Page fault refers to the situation of not having a page in the main memory when any process references it. There are two types of page fault :
Validity fault,
Protection fault.
In what way the Fault Handlers and the Interrupt handlers are different?
Answer:
Fault handlers are also an interrupt handler with an exception that the interrupt handlers cannot sleep. Fault handlers sleep in the context of the process that caused the memory fault. The fault refers to the running process and no arbitrary processes are put to sleep.
What is validity fault?
Answer:
If a process referring a page in the main memory whose valid bit is not set, it results in validity fault. The valid bit is not set for those pages:
that are outside the virtual address space of a process,
that are the part of the virtual address space of the process but no physical address is assigned to it.
What does the swapping system do if it identifies the illegal page for swapping?
Answer:
If the disk block descriptor does not contain any record of the faulted page, then this causes the attempted memory reference is invalid and the kernel sends a “Segmentation violation” signal to the offending process. This happens when the swapping system identifies any invalid memory reference.
What are states that the page can be in, after causing a page fault?
Answer:
On a swap device and not in memory,
On the free page list in the main memory,
In an executable file,
Marked “demand zero”,
Marked “demand fill”.
In what way the validity fault handler concludes?
Answer:
It sets the valid bit of the page by clearing the modify bit.
It recalculates the process priority.
At what mode the fault handler executes?
Answer:
At the Kernel Mode.
What do you mean by the protection fault?
Answer:
Protection fault refers to the process accessing the pages, which do not have the access permission. A process also incur the protection fault when it attempts to write a page whose copy on write bit was set during the fork() system call.
How the Kernel handles the copy on write bit of a page, when the bit is set?
Answer:
In situations like, where the copy on write bit of a page is set and that page is shared by more than one process, the Kernel allocates new page and copies the content to the new page and the other processes retain their references to the old page. After copying the Kernel updates the page table entry with the new page number. Then Kernel decrements the reference count of the old pfdata table entry. In cases like, where the copy on write bit is set and no processes are sharing the page, the Kernel allows the physical page to be reused by the processes. By doing so, it clears the copy on write bit and disassociates the page from its disk copy (if one exists), because other process may share the disk copy. Then it removes the pfdata table entry from the page-queue as the new copy of the virtual page is not on the swap device. It decrements the swap-use count for the page and if count drops to 0, frees the swap space.
For which kind of fault the page is checked first?
Answer:
The page is first checked for the validity fault, as soon as it is found that the page is invalid (valid bit is clear), the validity fault handler returns immediately, and the process incur the validity page fault. Kernel handles the validity fault and the process will incur the protection fault if any one is present.
In what way the protection fault handler concludes?
Answer:
After finishing the execution of the fault handler, it sets the modify and protection bits and clears the copy on write bit. It recalculates the process-priority and checks for signals.
How the Kernel handles both the page stealer and the fault handler?
Answer:
The page stealer and the fault handler thrash because of the shortage of the memory. If the sum of the working sets of all processes is greater that the physical memory then the fault handler will usually sleep because it cannot allocate pages for a process. This results in the reduction of the system throughput because Kernel spends too much time in overhead, rearranging the memory in the frantic pace.
Explain different types of Unix systems.
Answer:
The most widely used are: 1. System V (AT&T) 2. AIX (IBM) 3. BSD (Berkeley) 4. Solaris (Sun) 5. Xenix ( A PC version of Unix)
Explain kernel and shell.
Answer:
Kernal: It carries out basic operating system functions such as allocating memory, accessing files and handling communications.
Shell:A shell provides the user interface to the kernel.There are 3 major shells : C-shell, Bourne shell , Korn shell
What is ex and vi ?
Answer:
ex is Unix line editor and vi is the standard Unix screen editor.
Which are typical system directories below the root directory?
Answer:
(1)/bin: contains many programs which will be executed by users (2)/etc : files used by administrator (3)/dev: hardware devices (4)/lib: system libraries (5)/usr: application software (6)/home: home directories for different systems.
Construct pipes to execute the following jobs.
Answer:
1. Output of who should be displayed on the screen with value of total number of users who have logged in displayed at the bottom of the list.
2. Output of ls should be displayed on the screen and from this output the lines containing the word ‘poem’ should be counted and the count should be stored in a file.
3. Contents of file1 and file2 should be displayed on the screen and this output should be appended in a file
.From output of ls the lines containing ‘poem’ should be displayed on the screen along with the count.
4. Name of cities should be accepted from the keyboard . This list should be combined with the list present in a file. This combined list should be sorted and the sorted list should be stored in a file ‘newcity’.
5. All files present in a directory dir1 should be deleted any error while deleting should be stored in a file ‘errorlog’.
What is the significance of the “tee” command?
Answer:
It reads the standard input and sends it to the standard output while redirecting a copy of what it has read to the file specified by the user.
What does the command “ $who | sort –logfile > newfile” do?
Answer:
The input from a pipe can be combined with the input from a file . The trick is to use the special symbol “-“ (a hyphen) for those commands that recognize the hyphen as std input.
In the above command the output from who becomes the std input to sort , meanwhile sort opens the file logfile, the contents of this file is sorted together with the output of who (rep by the hyphen) and the sorted output is redirected to the file newfile.
What does the command “$ls | wc –l > file1” do?
Answer:
ls becomes the input to wc which counts the number of lines it receives as input and instead of displaying this count , the value is stored in file1.
Explain the steps that a shell follows while processing a command.
Answer:
After the command line is terminated by the key, the shell goes ahead with processing the command line in one or more passes. The sequence is well defined and assumes the following order.
Parsing: The shell first breaks up the command line into words, using spaces and the delimiters, unless quoted. All consecutive occurrences of a space or tab are replaced here with a single space.
Variable evaluation: All words preceded by a $ are evaluated as variables, unless quoted or escaped.
Command substitution: Any command surrounded by back quotes is executed by the shell which then replaces the standard output of the command into the command line.
Wild-card interpretation: The shell finally scans the command line for wild-cards (the characters *, ?, [, ]).
Any word containing a wild-card is replaced by a sorted list of
filenames that match the pattern. The list of these filenames then forms the arguments to the command.
PATH evaluation: It finally looks for the PATH variable to determine the sequence of directories it has to search in order to hunt for the command.
What difference between cmp and diff commands?
Answer:
cmp - Compares two files byte by byte and displays the first mismatch diff - tells the changes to be made to make the files identical
What is the use of ‘grep’ command?
Answer:
‘grep’ is a pattern search command. It searches for the pattern, specified in the command line with appropriate option, in a file(s).
Syntax : grep
Example : grep 99sk skpmcafile
What is the difference between cat and more command?
Answer:
Cat displays file contents. If the file is large the contents scroll off the screen before we view it. So command 'more' is like a pager which displays the contents page by page.
Write a command to kill the last background job?
Answer:
Kill $!
Which command is used to delete all files in the current directory and all its sub-directories?
Answer:
rm -r *
Write a command to display a file’s contents in various formats?
Answer:
$od -cbd file_name
c - character, b - binary (octal), d-decimal, od=Octal Dump.
What will the following command do?
Answer:
$ echo *
It is similar to 'ls' command and displays all the files in the current directory.
Is it possible to create new a file system in UNIX?
Yes, ‘mkfs’ is used to create a new file system.
Is it possible to restrict incoming message?
Answer:
Yes, using the ‘mesg’ command.
What is the use of the command "ls -x chapter[1-5]"
Answer:
ls stands for list; so it displays the list of the files that starts with 'chapter' with suffix '1' to '5', chapter1, chapter2, and so on.
Is ‘du’ a command? If so, what is its use?
Answer:
Yes, it stands for ‘disk usage’. With the help of this command you can find the disk capacity and free space of the disk.
Is it possible to count number char, line in a file; if so, How?
Answer:
Yes, wc-stands for word count.
wc -c for counting number of characters in a file.
wc -l for counting lines in a file.
Name the data structure used to maintain file identification?
Answer:
‘inode’, each file has a separate inode and a unique inode number.
How many prompts are available in a UNIX system?
Answer:
Two prompts, PS1 (Primary Prompt), PS2 (Secondary Prompt).
How does the kernel differentiate device files and ordinary files?
Answer:
Kernel checks 'type' field in the file's inode structure.
How to switch to a super user status to gain privileges?
Answer:
Use ‘su’ command. The system asks for password and when valid entry is made the user gains super user (admin) privileges.
What are shell variables?
Answer:
Shell variables are special variables, a name-value pair created and maintained by the shell.
Example: PATH, HOME, MAIL and TERM
What is redirection?
Answer:
Directing the flow of data to the file or from the file for input or output.
Example : ls > wc
How to terminate a process which is running and the specialty on command kill 0?
Answer:
With the help of kill command we can terminate the process.
Syntax: kill pid
Kill 0 - kills all processes in your system except the login shell.
What is a pipe and give an example?
Answer:
A pipe is two or more commands separated by pipe char '|'. That tells the shell to arrange for the output of the preceding command to be passed as input to the following command.
Example : ls -l | pr
The output for a command ls is the standard input of pr.
When a sequence of commands are combined using pipe, then it is called pipeline.
Explain kill() and its possible return values.
Answer:
There are four possible results from this call:
‘kill()’ returns 0. This implies that a process exists with the given PID, and the system would allow you to send signals to it. It is system-dependent whether the process could be a zombie.
‘kill()’ returns -1, ‘errno == ESRCH’ either no process exists with the given PID, or security enhancements are causing the system to deny its existence. (On some systems, the process could be a zombie.)
‘kill()’ returns -1, ‘errno == EPERM’ the system would not allow you to kill the specified process. This means that either the process exists (again, it could be a zombie) or draconian security enhancements are present (e.g. your process is not allowed to send signals to *anybody*).
‘kill()’ returns -1, with some other value of ‘errno’ you are in trouble! The most-used technique is to assume that success or failure with ‘EPERM’ implies that the process exists, and any other error implies that it doesn't.
An alternative exists, if you are writing specifically for a system (or all those systems) that provide a ‘/proc’ filesystem: checking for the existence of ‘/proc/PID’ may work.
What is LILO?
LILO stands for Linux boot loader. It will load the MBR, master boot record, into the memory, and tell the system which partition and hard drive to boot from.
What is the main advantage of creating links to a file instead of copies of the file?
A: The main advantage is not really that it saves disk space (though it does that too) but, rather, that a change of permissions on the file is applied to all the link access points. The link will show permissions of lrwxrwxrwx but that is for the link itself and not the access to the file to which the link points. Thus if you want to change the permissions for a command, such as su, you only have to do it on the original. With copies you have to find all of the copies and change permission on each of the copies.
Write a command to find all of the files which have been accessed within the last 30 days.find / -type f -atime -30 > December.filesThis command will find all the files under root, which is ‘/’, with file type is file. ‘-atime -30′ will give all the files accessed less than 30 days ago. And the output will put into a file call December.files.
What is the most graceful way to get to run level single user mode?
A: The most graceful way is to use the command init s.
If you want to shut everything down before going to single user mode then do init 0 first and from the ok prompt do a boot -s.
What does the following command line produce? Explain each aspect of this line.$ (date ; ps -ef | awk ‘{print $1}’ | sort | uniq | wc -l ) >> Activity.logA: First let’s dissect the line: The date gives the date and time as the first command of the line, this is followed by the a list of all running processes in long form with UIDs listed first, this is the ps -ef. These are fed into the awk which filters out all but the UIDs; these UIDs are piped into sort for no discernible reason and then onto uniq (now we see the reason for the sort - uniq only works on sorted data - if the list is A, B, A, then A, B, A will be the output of uniq, but if it’s A, A, B then A, B is the output) which produces only one copy of each UID.
These UIDs are fed into wc -l which counts the lines - in this case the number of distinct UIDs running processes on the system. Finally the results of these two commands, the date and the wc -l, are appended to the file "Activity.log". Now to answer the question as to what this command line produces. This writes the date and time into the file Activity.log together with the number of distinct users who have processes running on the system at that time. If the file already exists, then these items are appended to the file, otherwise the file is created.
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